Rome

Introduction

The story of Rome begins with its legendary foundation by Romulus and Remus in 753 BC. Initially a small settlement along the Tiber River, the city slowly grew in power and influence. Over the centuries, Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic, where power was shared among elected officials and the Senate. As the Roman Republic expanded, its military strength increased, and Rome emerged as a dominant force in the Mediterranean world, ultimately evolving into an empire under the rule of Augustus.

By the time of Jesus Christ, Rome controlled vast territories, including Judea, where Jesus lived and spread his teachings. The Roman Empire’s occupation of the region played a key role in the events of the New Testament, including the crucifixion of Jesus. As Christianity spread across the empire, it faced persecution but eventually gained acceptance, particularly after Emperor Constantine’s conversion in the 4th century AD. The city’s early history, from its mythical origins to its role in Biblical times, laid the foundation for its lasting influence on Western civilisation and the rise of Christianity.

The Legendary Foundation of Rome

The origins of Rome are steeped in myth and legend, with two primary stories emerging as the most well-known explanations of its foundation. These myths not only served to explain Rome’s origins but also offered a sense of divine favour and connection to ancient heroes, lending the city a rich, mythical heritage.

The Legend of Romulus and Remus

The most famous and enduring legend surrounding the founding of Rome is that of Romulus and Remus, twin brothers born to the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia and the god Mars, the Roman god of war. According to the myth, Rhea Silvia was the daughter of Numitor, the king of Alba Longa, an ancient city near Rome. However, Numitor was overthrown by his brother Amulius, who, to ensure that no heirs would challenge his rule, forced Rhea Silvia into a life of chastity as a Vestal Virgin. Despite this, she became pregnant with twins Romulus and Remus after being visited by Mars. Enraged by this violation of her vows, Amulius ordered the twins to be abandoned by the river to die.

The babies were left on the banks of the Tiber River, but fate intervened. They were discovered by a she-wolf, who nursed and cared for them until they were found by a shepherd named Faustulus. As the brothers grew older, they learned of their royal heritage and decided to seek revenge. They overthrew Amulius and restored their grandfather, Numitor, to the throne of Alba Longa. After this victory, the brothers set out to found a city on the banks of the Tiber River, near where they had been abandoned. However, a dispute arose over the location of the new settlement, leading to a violent quarrel between the twins. In a moment of fury, Romulus killed his twin brother, Remus, and thus went on to establish the city of Rome, naming it after himself in 753 BCE. This tragic yet powerful tale highlighted the themes of fate, violence, and divine intervention that would later be integral to Roman identity.

The Aeneas Myth

Another foundational legend that connects Rome to a broader mythological context is the story of Aeneas, as recounted in Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid. This myth, which links Rome to the ancient world of Troy, portrays Aeneas as a hero of noble blood, a son of the goddess Aphrodite and the mortal Anchises. Aeneas, a Trojan prince, is one of the few survivors of the fall of Troy. Guided by the gods, Aeneas embarks on a long and arduous journey to Italy, where he is destined to find a new city that will one day give rise to the Roman Empire. Throughout his journey, Aeneas faces numerous challenges, including battles, the loss of his beloved wife, and his struggles to balance his desires with his divine mission.

Aeneas’s journey serves as a metaphor for Rome’s rise, with struggles, sacrifice, and destiny intertwined. Upon arriving in Italy, Aeneas encounters resistance from the native peoples. Yet, he is ultimately victorious and settles in the region of Latium, where he marries Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. This union is seen as the divine foundation of Rome’s future greatness. Aeneas’s descendants, through his son Ascanius, are believed to eventually lead to Romulus and Remus, thus connecting the city’s legendary beginnings to the great Trojan hero. The Aeneid emphasised that Rome was not just a city founded by divine will but the continuation of an ancient and noble lineage, one that began with the heroic struggles of Aeneas and his Trojan ancestors. This myth solidified Rome’s identity as both a cultural and military heir to the great civilisations of the past, further cementing its sense of grandeur and destiny in the eyes of its citizens.

Together, these two myths—the tragic tale of Romulus and Remus and the epic journey of Aeneas formed the core of Rome’s legendary origins, shaping the city’s identity as one blessed by the gods and destined for greatness.

The Early Roman Kingdom (753–509 BCE)

Whether the founding of Rome was the divine fulfilment of Aeneas’s destiny or the result of Romulus’s ambition and fratricide, the city’s early development is closely tied to its era as a monarchy. Known as the Roman Kingdom, this period laid the groundwork for the city’s future greatness by establishing many of the political, religious, and cultural traditions that would shape Roman identity for centuries to come. After the death of Romulus, a succession of kings ruled Rome, some legendary and others possibly historical, whose collective legacies shaped the early character of the city. According to Roman tradition, seven kings reigned over nearly 250 years. Though much of what we know about them comes from later Roman historians such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus—and is therefore difficult to separate from myth—their stories represent key aspects of Rome’s foundational values: law, religion, warfare, civic planning, and social order.

Each of the seven kings is remembered for specific contributions to Roman society. Their reigns illustrate a progression from simple beginnings to a more complex and organised city-state.

• Romulus (753–716 BCE): The legendary founder and first king of Rome, Romulus is credited with establishing the Roman Senate and creating the city’s first laws. He divided the population into tribes and curiae (voting groups) and laid out the foundations for Roman political life. His reign also included the famous abduction of the Sabine women, a controversial event that symbolised Rome’s early efforts to grow its population and forge alliances with neighbouring communities.
• Numa Pompilius (716–673 BCE): Numa was a Sabine by origin and is often portrayed as a wise, peaceful, and deeply religious leader. He is credited with bringing order to Roman spiritual life by establishing many of the city’s priesthoods and religious rituals. Under his guidance, the office of Pontifex Maximus (chief priest) was established, temples were dedicated to gods such as Janus and Vesta, and a more structured calendar was introduced. Numa’s rule helped balance the warlike legacy of Romulus with spiritual and moral development.
• Tullus Hostilius (673–642 BCE): A stark contrast to Numa, Tullus was a militaristic ruler who sought to expand Roman influence through conquest. He famously destroyed the city of Alba Longa—Rome’s ancient rival—and integrated its population into Rome, thereby doubling the city’s size and asserting its dominance. His reign reflects the martial spirit that would come to define much of Rome’s imperial future.
• Ancus Marcius (642–617 BCE): Often regarded as a blend of Numa’s piety and Tullus’s military prowess, Ancus was known for striking a balance between war and religion. He is credited with founding the port city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber River, establishing Rome’s first connection to maritime trade. He also constructed the first bridge across the Tiber (Pons Sublicius), further linking Rome to the surrounding regions and facilitating expansion.
• Tarquinius Priscus (616–579 BCE): The first king of Etruscan origin, Tarquin the Elder, brought a new level of sophistication and architectural innovation to Rome. He began major construction projects such as the Circus Maximus (a large chariot racing stadium) and fortified the city with stone walls. He also expanded the Senate and introduced symbols of royal authority, like the purple robe and golden crown, reflecting Etruscan royal customs.
• Servius Tullius (578–535 BCE): A reform-minded ruler, Servius is remembered for restructuring Roman society by organising citizens into classes based on wealth and military duty. He introduced the census, a population and property survey that would become a key institution in Roman governance. Servius also divided the city into administrative regions and constructed the Servian Wall to protect the expanding urban centre. His reign marked a move toward a more organised and participatory society, laying the groundwork for the later Republic.
• Tarquinius Superbus (535–509 BCE): Known as “Tarquin the Proud,” the final king of Rome ruled with arrogance and cruelty. He ignored the Senate, ruled autocratically, and used violence to suppress dissent. His tyrannical behaviour and the notorious actions of his son, Sextus Tarquinius—particularly the rape of the noblewoman Lucretia—sparked widespread outrage. This led to a rebellion led by Lucius Junius Brutus, resulting in the expulsion of Tarquin and the abolition of the monarchy. In 509 BCE, the Roman Republic was established, introducing a new system of government in which elected magistrates and the Senate held power, and the Roman people forever rejected the institution of kingship.

The era of the Roman Kingdom, although shrouded in legend and partly mythological, represents a crucial phase in the development of Roman civilisation. It set the stage for the values, institutions, and social structures that would endure throughout the Republic and into the Empire. The kings of Rome, with their blend of religious devotion, military prowess, and civic innovation, symbolise the diverse foundations upon which one of history’s greatest civilisations was established.

The Rise of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE)

In 509 BCE, following the overthrow of the last Roman king, Tarquinius Superbus, the Roman people rejected monarchy and established a new form of government, the Roman Republic. This was a radical political shift rooted in the desire to prevent the return of tyranny and ensure that no single individual could ever again wield absolute power. The Republic was founded on the principles of shared governance, a well-defined legal structure, and civic duty. It introduced a system of elected magistrates, including consuls, praetors, and quaestors, who Roman citizens chose to serve for limited terms. At the heart of the Republic was the Senate, a powerful advisory body composed of Rome’s elite patricians, which played a central role in shaping policy and foreign affairs. The Roman Republic also introduced the concept of checks and balances, ensuring that no branch of government became too powerful —an innovation that would later inspire modern democratic systems.

The early Republic faced numerous challenges, including social tensions between the patricians (aristocratic families) and plebeians (common citizens). These tensions gave rise to the Conflict of the Orders, a centuries-long struggle in which plebeians fought for political representation and legal equality. Key reforms emerged from this conflict, including the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs, an office with the power to veto actions harmful to the lower classes, and the codification of laws in the Twelve Tables, Rome’s first written legal code. These developments gradually broadened participation in government and helped stabilise Roman society.

Meanwhile, the Republic was rapidly expanding. Rome’s military, organised into highly disciplined legions, became a formidable force. By forming strategic alliances and engaging in a series of wars, Rome first conquered the neighbouring Latin tribes, then the entire Italian peninsula. One of the Republic’s significant military challenges came during the Punic Wars (264–146 BCE) against Carthage, a powerful city-state in North Africa. These brutal conflicts, particularly the Second Punic War led by the Carthaginian general Hannibal, tested the strength and resilience of the Republic. Rome emerged victorious, destroying Carthage and gaining control over vast territories, including Sicily, Spain, and parts of North Africa.

As Rome expanded, it became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. However, this rapid growth also brought internal pressures. Wealth from conquered lands flowed into Rome, enriching the aristocracy but creating vast economic inequality. The rise of powerful generals, such as Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, challenged the balance of power within the Republic. Civil wars erupted, and despite efforts to restore stability, the traditional republican system began to break down under the weight of its success.

By 27 BCE, after years of political turmoil and conflict, Octavian, later known as Augustus, emerged as the undisputed leader of Rome. The Senate granted him extraordinary powers, effectively ending the Republic and marking the beginning of the Roman Empire. Though the Republic formally ceased to exist, many of its institutions and ideals would continue to shape Roman governance for centuries to come. The era of the Roman Republic remains one of the most influential periods in Western history, leaving behind a legacy of law, citizenship, and representative government that continues to resonate in modern political thought.

Rome in Biblical Times

By the time of the early Christian era, Rome had evolved from a modest city-state on the banks of the Tiber River into the capital of a vast and powerful empire. The city’s influence extended across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, including the land of Judea, home to many of the key events recorded in the New Testament. This period marked a dramatic intersection between Roman political power and the unfolding of Biblical history, shaping the world in which Christianity was born and spread.

The Roman Empire and Judea

Rome’s relationship with Judea began in earnest in 63 BCE when the Roman general Pompey the Great marched into Jerusalem and brought the region under Roman control. This conquest marked the end of the Hasmonean dynasty and the beginning of Judea’s status as a client kingdom under Roman oversight. While Jewish kings would continue to rule locally, their authority was ultimately subject to Rome. This political shift laid the foundation for much of the political tension and unrest described in the New Testament.

By 37 BCE, Herod the Great was appointed king of Judea by the Roman Senate. Though ethnically Idumean, Herod ruled as a Roman puppet king and sought to gain favour with both his Roman overlords and the Jewish population. He is remembered for his grand architectural projects, including the massive expansion and renovation of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which became a symbol of Jewish identity and worship. Despite these accomplishments, Herod’s reign was notorious for brutality and paranoia. The Gospel of Matthew attributes to him the Massacre of the Innocents—an order to kill all male infants in Bethlehem following the birth of Jesus, whom he perceived as a threat to his throne.

The Birth of Christianity

Christianity emerged within this complex political and religious landscape. Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish preacher and spiritual teacher, was born during the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE–14 CE), the first Roman emperor. Augustus had brought peace and stability to the empire following decades of civil war, inaugurating the Pax Romana—a period of relative peace that allowed for the safe movement of people and ideas across Roman territories. It was during this time that Jesus began preaching a message centred on love, compassion, repentance, and the coming of the Kingdom of God.

Jesus’s teachings, while rooted in Jewish tradition, challenged both the authority of the Roman occupiers and the religious establishment of the time. His growing influence alarmed both Roman and Jewish leaders. Around 30–33 CE, under the governorship of Pontius Pilate, Jesus was arrested, tried, and crucified—a Roman method of execution reserved for criminals and political rebels. His death and the claim of his resurrection became the cornerstone of the Christian faith, signalling the beginning of a religious movement that would soon spread far beyond the borders of Judea.

The Apostle Paul, a former Pharisee who became a Christian missionary, played a pivotal role in transforming Christianity from a Jewish sect into a global faith. Travelling extensively throughout the Roman Empire—from Asia Minor to Greece and eventually to Rome—Paul preached the gospel, wrote letters to early Christian communities (many of which became part of the New Testament), and helped shape Christian theology. His Roman citizenship allowed him certain protections and freedoms, which he used to his advantage in spreading the Christian message.

Rome’s Role in Early Christianity

The city of Rome itself quickly became central to the Christian story. Both Peter and Paul are traditionally believed to have travelled to Rome and suffered martyrdom there during the reign of Emperor Nero, around 64 CE. Nero’s persecution of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome was one of the earliest instances of organised imperial hostility toward the new faith. Despite these early persecutions, Christianity continued to grow, spreading through cities and provinces via Roman roads, trade routes, and diaspora communities.

Over the following centuries, the relationship between Christianity and the Roman state fluctuated, at times marked by tolerance and at other times by severe persecution under emperors such as Domitian, Decius, and Diocletian. Yet, even amidst hardship, the Christian message persisted and flourished underground. Christian communities met in private homes and catacombs, practised in secret, and developed rich traditions of worship, theology, and charity.

A major turning point came in 313 CE when Emperor Constantine the Great issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious tolerance to Christians throughout the empire. Constantine himself converted to Christianity, and under his reign, the once-persecuted faith gained legal status and imperial favour. This moment signalled the beginning of a profound transformation: Christianity would soon become not only legal but the official religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Theodosius I by the end of the 4th century.

The influence of Rome in Biblical times cannot be overstated. It provided the setting for the crucifixion of Christ, the arena for early Christian martyrdom, and, eventually, the foundation upon which the global Christian church would be built. From the oppression of Jesus under Roman rule to the later embrace of the cross as a symbol of imperial power, Rome’s role in the Christian story is one of paradox, providence, and enduring legacy.

Conclusion

Rome’s legacy is twofold and deeply profound. On the one hand, it stands as a shining example of human achievement, an epicentre of innovation in governance, law, engineering, architecture, and military strategy. The development of the Roman Republic, with its system of checks and balances, citizen participation, and established legal codes, became a model for many future governments worldwide. Its military conquests, though often brutal, unified vast regions under a shared infrastructure, language, and cultural framework. Roman roads, aqueducts, and monumental architecture still stand today, a testament to the empire’s ingenuity and enduring craftsmanship.

On the other hand, Rome holds a special and pivotal place in the spiritual and cultural formation of Western civilisation. It was within the borders of the Roman Empire that the events of the Bible unfolded—from the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem during the reign of Caesar Augustus to his crucifixion under Pontius Pilate and the spread of Christianity by apostles like Paul and Peter, both of whom are believed to have died in Rome. The empire’s vast networks, both physical and political, inadvertently enabled the rapid spread of Christian teachings. Despite early persecutions, Christianity would not only survive but eventually thrive under Roman rule, ultimately becoming the empire’s state religion and shaping the moral and spiritual foundations of Europe for centuries to come.

From its legendary founding by Romulus and Remus to its establishment as the heart of one of the greatest empires in human history, Rome’s early history is a tapestry of myth, ambition, struggle, and triumph. Its rise from a small cluster of villages along the Tiber River to a global capital of influence and faith is unparalleled. The city’s institutions, stories, and spiritual journey have left an indelible mark on humanity, affecting not only political and legal systems but also philosophy, language, literature, and religion.

Whether one views Rome as a city born from divine legend or a powerhouse shaped by centuries of conquest and reform, it remains a central chapter in the story of humanity. Its influence echoes through the corridors of modern law, in the domes of churches, in the structure of democratic governments, and in the spiritual life of billions. The legacy of Rome is not confined to ruins or museums; it endures, woven into the very fabric of modern civilisation, a timeless reminder of the heights and complexities of human endeavour.